INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM, TRAVEL AND HOSPITALITY LAW industry recovery and, at the same time, make the industry more sustainable. DST is a form of terrestrial space tourism, representing the intention to visit dark-sky areas to observe celestial objects and/or enjoy the nighttime landscape37. The main prerequisite of this form of tourism is the dark and starry skies. The activities included in DST are also subject to the presence of the dark skies, for example, stargazing and astrophotography. The natural dark skies, however, are rapidly disappearing due to light pollution caused by increased levels of artificial light at night (ALAN). As a consequence, the willingness to continue enjoying the beauty of the dark skies has led to actions against light pollution and the promotion of DST as a tool for its reduction. The first advocates and seekers of the dark skies were astronomers. The increased levels of nighttime lighting, which brighten the night skies in the cities and surrounding areas, have created obstacles and sometimes the inability to carry out amateur and professional astronomical activities. Since the 1950s astronomers started the fight against light pollution by, inter alia, raising general awareness about the issue and promoting the establishment of regulations and policies, aiming to the reduction of ALAN levels. One of the biggest outcomes was the formation of the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA)38, currently the leading international organization in the protection of dark skies and the facilitation of DST. Acknowledging that the negative impacts of light pollution go beyond brightening the dark skies39 and noting the dramatic increase of light pollution worldwide40, the IDA raises awareness about light pollution, protects the night skies and ecosystems from increased nighttime lighting and promotes DST. In order to protect dark skies more efficiently, the IDA has formed the “International Dark Sky Places” (IDSP) certification program. The Program offers five types of 37 Rodrigues A.L.O., Rodrigues A., Peroff D.M. (2015) The Sky and Sustainable Tourism Development: A Case Study of a Dark Sky Reserve Implementation in Alqueva, International Journal of Tourism Research, Int. J. Tourism Res., 17: 292-302. 38 The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) is a United States-based non-profit organization incorporated in 1988. IDA is the recognized authority on light pollution and is the leading organization combating light pollution worldwide. 39 See for e.g., Hölker, F., et al., (2019) Light Pollution, Circadian Photoreception, and Melatonin in Vertebrates. Sustainability 2019, 11, 6400; https://www.mdpi.com/573718; Paksarian D., Rudolph K.E., Stapp E.K., et al. (2020) Association of Outdoor Artificial Light at Night With Mental Disorders and Sleep Patterns Among US Adolescents. JAMA Psychiatry; 77(12):1266–1275. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.1935; Hölker, F., C. Wolter, E. K. Perkin, and K. Tockner (2010) Light pollution as a biodiversity threat. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25:681–682; Kurvers, R.H.J.M., Drägestein, J., Hölker, F. et al. (2018) Artificial Light at Night Affects Emergence from a Refuge and Space Use in Guppies. Sci Rep 8, 14131. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018- -32466-3. 40 Falchi F., Cinzano P., Duriscoe D., et al. (2016) The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness. Sci. Adv. 2, e1600377.
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